Senior and Fleming (2006) consider change as essential for an organisation. Change can be defined as the event that occurs when passing from one state or phase to another, in essence becoming different (Choudhry et al 2009, Anon, A 2010). Mullins (2005) affirms that change is an unavoidable element of organisational life. The most common forms of change across industries are cost reduction, redundancies, culture change, and performance management. Organisational change is a vast subject, within change there is understood to be resistance (***) and this shall be the focus of this report.

Barile (1999) asserts that people are core to a successful change implementation within an organisation. This is further iterated by Yemm (2007) who states that people are one of the two key elements of successful change, the other being the fit with the organisation. Organisational change is a vast subject but as people are core to successful change and often within change there is understood to be resistance (***) this shall be the focus of this report.

Discuss how resistance is associated with urgent change rather than organic??

Resistance to change can be defined as an individual or group engaging in acts to obstruct or disrupt an attempt to initiate change. Resistance itself can take different forms, from subtle undermining of change initiatives to withholding information or, active resistance (CIPD 2009).

The concept of resistance to change has benefited from research and through this it has become clear that resistance is far more complex than once thought. Rather than being driven by the self-interest of employees, it stems from a variety of social factors, including rational and non-rational factors, political factors and management factors; for instance inappropriate or poor management styles (Waddell & Sohal 1998).

Resistance is portrayed as an unwarranted and detrimental response and arising spontaneously as a reaction to change, independent of the interactions and relationships within the organisation (Dent & Goldberg, 1999a; Ford, Ford, & McNamara, 2002; King & Anderson, 1995 cited in Ford et al 2008)

By assuming that resistance is necessarily bad the potential contributions of increasing the likelihood of successful implementation, helping build awareness and momentum for change, and eliminating unnecessary, impractical, or counterproductive elements in the design or conduct of the change process are lost (ford et al 2008). Change recipients’ reactions to change are not necessarily liabilities to successful change. On the contrary, employees reactions can have value for the existence, engagement, and strength of a change, serving as an asset and a resource in its implementation and successful accomplishment (Knowles & Linn, 2004b cited in Ford et al 2008).This is beyond the confines of this report but the researcher feels it is important to note that some theorists feel there are benefits for resistance to change; this would question the considerable research into reducing and overcoming resistance.

Link this to reasons resistance due to expectations not being met

3.1.2. Behaviours associated with resistance to change

Resistance may be disorganised or organised, individual or collective, conscious or unconscious, active or passive, continuous or stand alone incidences. Accordingly it can also take many forms; strikes, sabotage, restriction of output, go-slow, insubordination, ritualistic compliance, jokes, sarcasm, whistle-blowing and cynicism (Ackroyd and Thompson 1999, Ezzamel et al 2001, Gabriel 1995, 1999a, Jermier et al 1994, Marx 1995, Sturdy & Fineman 2001 cited in Fineman et al 2005).

An example of active resistance is strikes, like those amongst Royal Mail staff in order to halt changes they were not consulted about (The Guardian 2009).

3.1.3. Tactics to reduce resistance to change

McKoy and Elwood (2009) state that during times of change there are clear inferences for leadership, this if further evidenced by Kotter (***) and the need for education and communication to enable readiness for change rather than resistance to change. The leader’s principal role in times of change is sense making, it is their responsibility to anticipate, interpret and articulate the change and its implications (McKoy &Elwood 2009).

The ADKAR framework describes knowledge as the knowledge to know how to change. Having training and education, access to information, examples, and role models will all increase the knowledge of the organisational change on an individual level (Hiatt 2006).

Kotter’s (**) approaches….

Sourced from: Ault, J. (2009. P….)

McKinsey’s Lawson and Price (***) suggests that four basic conditions are necessary before employees will change their behaviour: a) a compelling story; employees must see the point of the change and agree with it; b) role modelling; they must see the CEO and colleagues they admire behaving in the new way; c) reinforcing mechanisms; systems, processes, and incentives must be in line with the new behaviour; and d) capability building; employees need the skills required to make the desired changes (Aiken & Keller 2009). Ability, in the context of ADKAR, is the capability to implement required skills and behaviours: practice applying new skills or using new processes and tools, coaching, mentoring, and the removal of barriers in the context of the organisational change taking place (Hiatt 2006).

Hiatt (2006) discusses reinforcement in the context of incentives and rewards, compensation changes, celebrations, and personal recognition. – for both resistance and PC

3.1.4. Psychological contract

The expression ‘Psychological contract’ will be used as a collective term as it will be used in this context throughout the discussion. Burnes (2004) asserts that ‘the concept is based on the assertion that there is an unwritten set of expectations operating at all times between every member of an organisation and the various managers and others in that organisation.’ Psychological contracts serve two key functions; to define the employment relationship, and managing mutual expectations (Hiltrop 1995). Cho