CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

According to Organ (1990), Organizational Citizenship Behaviours (OCB) are beyond the scope of formal job description, incentives or contractual sanctions. However, this work-related activities that performed by the employees will increase the organizational effectiveness. Bateman and Organ (1983) states that Organizational Citizenship Behaviours also not specifically included in the job description and may be considered as extra-role behaviours. Besides, Moorman and Blakely (1995) argue that although the OCB are adding merit to the organization but the managers also having difficulties in eliciting the employees’ performance due to the behaviours are voluntary by the employees.

2.2 Definition of Organizational Citizenship Behaviours (OCB)

OCB have been defined as “individuals’ extra-helping behaviours that are discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, in order to promotes the efficient and effective functioning of the organization”(Organ, 1988: 4). In the earlier study that prior to the Organ’s idea, Katz (1964) had recognized the value of extra-role behaviour which is critically to the functioning of any social system. Katz suggested that to the extent of extra-role behaviour, some level is a need to ensure the success and survival of social system. Hence, the social system reaps the harvest of individual’s extra effort.

Koys (2001) found that citizenship behaviour leads to subsequent enhanced organizational performance. LePine, Erez & Johnson (2002) and Rioux & Penner, (2001) also states that in order for an organization to operate effectively, the employees must go beyond the roles that are not indicated by their formal job description. This phenomenon has been inconsistently labeled by researchers as pro-social organizational behaviour, extra-role behaviour, or organizational spontaneity (Van Dyne, Cummings, & McLean Parks, 1995). Theses behaviour is especially beneficial for hospitality and restaurants organizations to effectively deliver timely and tailored services for customers (Sammons, 1994).

From the research, definitions of OCB have difference view between Organ’s and Katz’s ideas. Although they have stated that OCBs contain all positive organizationally relevant behaviours but from the Organ’s idea stated that organizational citizenship behaviours can be defined as the type of behaviour that is not a part of job description, but it is rather a matter of personal choice and the willingness to do more than expectation. However from Katz’s idea stated that some level of extra-role behaviour is necessary to ensure the survival and success of social system. Furthermore, the factors that are intended to investigate in organizational citizenship behaviours is perceived organizational support, organizational commitment, organizational identification and organizational justice (distribute justice, procedural justice).

2.3 Perceived Organizational Support

Perceived organizational support (POS) has aroused a great deal of interest among researchers in the field of psychology and management (Eisenberger et.al. 2004). In 2002, Rhoades and Eiserberger published a meta-analysis on the antecedents and consequences of POS based on seventy (70) empirical papers. POS refers to the degree to which employees perceive their employer to be concerned with their well-being and to value their contribution to the organization (Eisenberger et al., 1986). According to Levinson (1965) employees tend to personify the organization for which they work. Therefore, based on the actions of executives and managers, employees tend to lend intention to the organization as a system. POS thus corresponds to the degree to which employees feel that the organization that employs them is willing to equitably compensate them for their efforts, help them in case of needs and make their work interesting and simulating and provides them with adequate working conditions (Eisenberger et al.,1986). In brief, employees are of the general idea concerning the support provided by the organization.

An employee serves as an important source of socio-emotional resources, that is, respects and caring, and tangible benefits, such as wages and medical benefits. Thus, research on perceived organizational support begins with the observation that managers are concerned with their employees’ commitment to the organization. Employees are focused on the organization’s commitment to them. Being regarded highly by the organization helps the employer to meet employees’ needs for approval, esteem and affiliation. Positive valuation by the organization also provides an indication that increased effort will be noted and rewarded. Therefore employees will take an active interest as regard the assistance offered by their employer.

Organizational support theory (OST: Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchinson, & Sowa 1986; Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002; Shore & Shore 1995) holds that in order to meet socio-emotional needs and to assess the benefits of increased work effort, employees form a general perception concerning the extent to which the organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being. Such perceived organizational support (POS) would increase employees’ obligation to help the organization reach its objectives, their affective commitment to the organization, and their expectation that improved performance would be rewarded. Behavioural outcomes of POS would increase in in-role and extra-role performance and decrease in stress and withdrawal behaviours such as absenteeism and turnover.

The meta-analysis of research on POS, carried out by Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) indicated that three general categories of favourable treatment received by employees (fairness of treatment, supervisors support, and rewards and job conditions) are positively related to POS, which in turn is associated with outcome favoured by employees, for example, increasing affective commitment and performance and reduced turnover. POS specifies mechanism responsible for these associations, allowing stringent tests of the theory.

POS is assumed to be a global belief which employees form concerning their valuation by the organization. Based on the experience of personal relevant organizational policies and procedures, the receipts of resources and the interaction with agents of the organization, an employee would distil the organization’s general orientation towards him or her. Thus the organization’s discretion is important for determining the extent to which different treatments has most impact on POS. For example, union workers might receive excellent wages and benefits. However, if these benefits resulted from difficult contested negotiations, employees would consider the benefits to have been provided involuntarily, and the benefits would have little influence on POS.

According to organizational support theory, the relationship between performance-reward expectancies and POS should be reciprocal (Eisenberger, 1986; Shore & Shore, 1995). Favourable opportunities for rewards would convey the organizational’s positive valuation of employees’ contribution and thus contributes to POS (cf. Gaertner and Nollen, 1989). POS in turn, would increase employees’ expectations that high performance will be rewarded. Consistent with these views, the meta-analysis by Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) found that opportunities for greater recognition, pay and promotions were positively